商务法律英语 | 在美国输掉官司该如何上诉？
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"taking two bites at the apple."
Getting a second opportunity
to do something.
本文部分节选自《商务法律英语》
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本文主要涉及美国的法院系统。首先，美国的法院分立为联邦法院与州法院两个系统。联邦法院为全国性法院，而州法院分立于各州。其次，美国的法院由三级组成，即初审法院、上诉法院及最高法院。本文对美国的“上诉审查”制度进行了说明，即上诉法院可以对下级法院的裁决进行复审。再次，美国的法院分为刑事法院与民事法院。刑事法院专门审理被指控犯罪的人，而民事法院专门审理如合同违约、人身伤害或财产损害赔偿类的金钱性案件。本文介绍包括当事人需要提交的法律文件在内的民事法院起诉、证据收集及其后的各个诉讼环节，涵盖了从初审到上诉的整个过程。本文对案件管辖权的概念作了说明。管辖权决定特定诉讼的受理地以及一个法院是否有权审理某一案件。最后，本文讨论了普通法国家与大陆法国家的不同。此外，本文对美国的诉讼术语及程序进行了专门讨论。
Federal court system and state court system
Courts in both the federal government and the state governments are organized into a system of higher courts and lower courts.
联邦法院和州政府法院共同组成高级法院和低级法院体系。
On the bottom step of the staircase is the lowest court, the trial court. This is the court where a case begins. The case is presented to the judge and jury, the witnesses give testimony, the lawyers make their arguments, and the judge and jury decide the outcome of the case—who wins and who loses.
最底部的是最低级别的法院，即初审法院。初审法院是案件初次审理的地方。案件呈送至法官和陪审团，证人提供证词，律师则当庭辩论，法官与陪审团决定案件的结果——谁赢谁输。
It is very common for the person who loses the case at the trial court level to want another chance, a second opportunity to have the case heard and perhaps decided differently. As the idiom at the start of this chapter says, the person who lost at trial is taking two bites at the apple. That "second bite" comes in the form of an appeal. When an appeal is taken from the decision in the trial court, the case moves up the stairs to the next higher court, the appeals court. In the federal court system, the appeals courts are called the Circuit Court of Appeals. There are thirteen Circuits in the United States. Each Circuit handles appeals from federal trial courts in certain states.
在初审法庭输掉官司的人往往会要求第二次机会。希望案件重审，并且得到不一样的结果。正如开篇格言所言，“输掉官司的人想咬两次苹果”。上诉案件在上诉法庭维持原判，案件会移交至最高法院。在联邦法庭体系，上诉法庭 又称作巡回上诉法庭。在美国共有13个巡回法庭。每个巡回法庭处理特定的州初审法庭的上诉案件。
Parties to a case have an absolute right to have the decision of the trial court reviewed by the appeals court. The appeals court will examine the decision of the lower court (the trial court) and decide if that decision was legally correct. Unlike the trial court, there is no jury in the appeals court. Instead, the appeal will be heard and the case decided by a group of judges, usually between three and nine judges. The appeals court may affirm the trial court’s decision, meaning it rules that the decision in the trial court was correct. The appeals court may instead reverse the trial court’s decision, ruling that the decision in the trial court was incorrect and stating what the appeals court has determined is the correct decision. The appeals court may also tell the trial court to conduct a new trial, following the instructions on the law which the appeals court gives to the trial court. In that situation, the instructions from the appeals court to the trial court are called the remand.
案件双方有绝对的权利要求上诉法庭重审初审法庭的审判结果。上诉法庭将会重审初审法庭的审判结果是否合法。与初审法庭不同，上诉法庭并没有陪审团，上诉案件的听审与裁决均需要3-9名法官。上诉法院确认了初审法院的审判结果，就意味着初审法院的审判结果的是正确的。上诉法院若是推翻了初审法院的审判结果，表明初审法院的审判结果错误，那么上诉法院要给出正确的审判结果。上诉法院还可以要求初审法院给出新的审判，遵循上诉法院给予的法律指示。在这种情况下，上诉法院对初审法院给出的指示就叫做重审。
If one of the parties is not satisfied with the decision of the appeals court, he or she may seek a further review of the case by going up the next step on the staircase to the Supreme Court. As in appeals courts, a Supreme Court will have a group of judges, usually nine judges, who will all review and decide the case. Also as in the appeals court, a Supreme Court may either affirm the appeals court’s decision, reverse the appeals court’s decision, or remand the case to the appeals court with instructions on how to decide the case.
如果其中一方对上诉法庭的审判结果不满意，他可以寻求最高法院的重审。最高法院通常有9个法官受理并最终给出审判结果。上诉法院，最高法院要么会认可上诉法庭的审判结果，颠覆上诉法庭的审判，要么要求上诉法庭表明审判案件案的过程。
In the federal court system, the top step on the stairs is occupied by the United States Supreme Court, the highest court in the nation.
在联邦法院体系中，最顶层的是美国最高法院。
In the state court systems, the top stair step is occupied by the state’s Supreme Court, which is always the highest court in that state.
在州法庭体系中，最顶层的是州最高法院。
The California Court System
Unlike the parties’ right to have the trial court’s decision reviewed by the appeals court, no party has an absolute right to have his or her case reviewed by a Supreme Court. The party can request a Supreme Court to review the case, but most of the time the Supreme Court will refuse to hear the case. Why? Because the U.S. Supreme Court only hears cases that are of the greatest importance, such as cases that affect or interpret the U.S. Constitution, or cases that will have an impact on the legal rights of people all over the United States. Similarly, each state’s Supreme Court will only review cases that are of the greatest importance in that state, such as cases that affect or interpret that state’s constitution or that will impact the legal rights of many people in that state. Most cases are simply not important enough to merit a review by a state Supreme Court or the U.S. Supreme Court.
与案件双方有绝对的权利要求上诉法庭重审初审法庭的审判结果，却没有绝对的权利要求最高法院重审自己的案件。涉案方可以要求最高法院重审案件，但大多数情况下最高法院会拒绝重审，为什么呢？因为美国最高法院只听取重大案件，例如影响美国宪法或者解释美国宪法，或者对整个美国的法律权利有重大影响的案件。相应地，每一个州的最高法院只审理在州的范围内最重要的案件，例如影响州宪法或解释州宪法，或者影响所在州的人民的法律权利。大多数案件都没有重要到需要上升到州最高法院或者国家最高法院的程度去重审。
A party asks a Supreme Court to hear a case by filing a document called a writ of certiorari. "Certiorari" comes from a Latin word meaning "to be informed." The writ of certiorari is a document that explains the case in detail and requests the Supreme Court to review the decision of the appeals court. If the Supreme Court decides to hear the case, it will issue a document granting certiorari. In the more likely event that the Supreme Court decides not to hear the case, it will issue a document denying certiorari. In either situation, the review by the state Supreme Court or the U.S. Supreme Court will be the final review that the parties can get for their case.(Exception: in certain cases involving the interpretation or application of the U.S. Constitution, cases heard and decided by a state Supreme Court may also be subject to a final review by the U.S. Supreme Court.) A Supreme Court’s decision is the last step on the staircase.
当事人会要求，最高法院听取案件叫做复审令，"Certiorari"来源于拉丁语，意思是“被告知”复审令是这样一种文件，它详细地解释案件并且要求最高法院重审上诉法院的审判结果。如果最高法院决定听取案件，它就会发布否认复审令。在任一情况下，州最高法院复审或是美国最高人民法院将会成为当事人最终的复审。（除了 涉及美国宪法的解释与应用，由州最高法院听取和审判的案件，也有可能最终臣服于美国最高法院。）最高法院的决定是阶梯的最后一层。
The Language of Lawsuits
There are certain words used to describe the people involved in the lawsuit (who are known as the parties) and the course of a lawsuit, or case, as it passes through the court system.
在司法体系中，诉讼案件的双方，诉讼过程，案件都用固定的词来描述。
First, it is important to recognize that there are two different types of cases: criminal cases and civil cases. Criminal cases are brought by the government against a person, or a company, which is accused of a crime. The purpose of criminal cases is not only to punish the accused person, but also to protect the rights of society as a whole. Criminal cases are not intended to protect the rights of the victim of the crime. In a criminal case, the person who starts the case is called the prosecutor and is representing the government. The person accused of the crime is called the defendant.
首先，最重要的就是要意识到案件类型的不同，即分为刑事案件与民事案件。由政府对受到指认犯罪的个人或者公司提起的刑事案件。刑事案件的目的不仅在于惩罚被告，还在于保护社会公众的权益。刑事案件不是有目的的保护受害者的权益。在刑事案件中，提起诉讼的人叫做检察官，通常代表政府。被指认犯罪的人叫做被告。
By contrast, civil cases are lawsuits brought by an individual or a company. The purpose of civil cases is indeed to protect the rights of the individual or company. Usually, the person who starts a civil case is seeking compensation—money—to pay for injury to the person or damage to the person’s property. In a civil case, the person who starts the lawsuit is called the plaintiff. The person who is sued is called the defendant, the same word used to describe the person accused of a crime in a criminal case.
与之相反，民事案件通常是由公民或公司提起诉讼。民事案件的目的是保护个人或者公司的权利。通常，提起民事诉讼的一方会寻求经济补偿，也就是支付个人的伤残费用或是个人的财产损失。民事案件中，提起诉讼的人叫做原告，被控诉的一方叫做被告。与刑事案件中涉事人的称呼一致。
The subject of the lawsuit, or one can say the reason that the plaintiff has started the lawsuit, is the cause of action. The cause of action is the legal claim that the plaintiff is making against the defendant. A defense is a legal excuse offered by the defendant for his or her conduct. The plaintiff starts a lawsuit by writing a document which explains the causes of action, and filing that document with a court. That document is called the complaint. The defendant’s response to the complaint is called the answer. The answer may deny that the defendant has engaged in the conduct which the plaintiff claims happened, or it may set out the defenses and legal reasons for the defendant’s conduct. Together the complaint and the answer are called pleadings.
诉讼的主题，或是原告提起诉讼的原因，叫做诉讼理由。诉讼理由是原告控诉被告的的合法法律诉求。被告为自己行为提供合法理由称作辩护。原告需要写一份解释诉讼理由的书面文件提起诉讼或是与法庭签署文件，其中这个文件就叫做起诉书。被告对原告的回应叫做答辩。
答辩可以否认原告控诉被告的所作所为，或者作出辩护和被告行为的合法理由。起诉与答辩一起称作诉请及答辩。
As the lawsuit proceeds, the lawyers may present other documents to the court. The lawyers may file motions, which are requests of the judge for a particular decision or ruling. When a judge makes a decision or ruling, it is called an order. One type of motion is for an injunction, which is an order of the court instructing one of the parties either to stop doing something, or to do a particular thing. For example, if the plaintiff claims that the defendant is making a noise which interferes with the plaintiff’s business operations, the judge might give an injunction—an order—instructing the defendant to stop making that noise. Motions will be supported by briefs, which are documents in which the lawyers explain the facts and law, from their client’s point of view, and argue that those facts and law support the request they are making of the judge. Although the usual meaning of the word "brief" is "short in duration or length," lawyers briefs in support of motions may be ten, twenty, or even fifty pages long-hardly what one would call "short"! Motions are also supported by affidavits, which are written statements made by parties or witnesses and sworn to be true.
诉讼过程中，由律师向法院呈送文件。律师发出动议，也就是指向法官提出的作出特定决定的要求或请求。当法官作出决定或请求时就称作法官的决定（裁定），一种请求称作禁令（命令，强制令）；一种动议类型就是强制令，指法院对一方当事人发出的禁止或强制其做出某事的命令。例如，如果原告陈述被告制造的噪音影响了当事人的经营活动，法官就会给出强制令——法官的裁定——要求被告停止制造噪音。案件摘要用以支撑动议，通常由律师为提出某一动议而就案件事实和法律所作的法律文件。尽管“brief”本身的意思指的是篇幅短小或是时间短，律师为支撑动议而作的案件摘要却有10-20页，甚至50页的篇幅长度。书面陈诉（宣誓书）也用来支撑动议，指的是当事人或证人宣誓为真的书面陈述。
During the life of the lawsuit, the parties engage in the process of discovery. This consists of several formal methods for finding out information about the case, and uncovering evidence to support the party’s claims or defenses. One type of discovery is depositions. A deposition is very much like testimony given by a witness during a trial. The witness is sworn to tell the truth, the lawyers ask questions of the witness, and everything that is said by anyone is taken down by a court reporter, a person who uses a typewriter like machine to write down what is said (very much like the oldfashioned method of shorthand, except now using a keyboard machine connected to a computer).Depositions are not conducted in court, but usually take place in a lawyer’s office. Another type of discovery is interrogatories, which are written questions that one party sends to the other party to answer. The answering party writes out the answers and sends them back to the requesting party. A third kind of discovery is a request for documents. This is a formal request from one party to the other to provide copies of any documents that may be evidence in the case. These documents can be of any type, but usually include letters, faxes, memoranda, contracts, sales documents, telephone records, and electronic documents, such as emails, text messages, or even tweets or the content of website pages.
在诉讼过程中，当事人参与案件事实或信息的发现与披露。一种发现的方式就是通过证人证言，即证人在法庭外就律师询问所作出的正式证言。证人发誓自己陈述的内容都是事实，律师会向证人询问问题，法庭上任一方说话内容都会被书记员记录下来。书记员就是用机器记录法庭上各方说话内容（类似于传统的速记法，现代则是用连接电脑的键盘机）。证人证言通常在法庭外的律师办公室就律师询问作出的证言。另一种披露方式是问题，指的是由一方当事人向另一方当事人提出的书面问题。回答问题的一方写下答案并将答案发给提出问题的一方。第三种披露方式就是书面要求。指的是向当事人发出的提供相应文件副本的书面要求。什么类型的书面文件都可以，比如信件，传真，备忘录，合同，销售文件，电话记录以及电子文件，像电子邮件、短信息甚至推文和网页内容。
A large majority of lawsuits are resolved by agreement of the parties, without the case going all the way to a trial in court. Such agreements are called settlements.
大多数的诉讼纠纷由当事人自己通过协议解决，案件不用上升到初审法庭。这样通过协商一致解决纠纷的方式称作和解。
If a settlement cannot be made, the case will proceed to a trial. At the trial, a judge will preside (supervise) and will keep order and ensure that both parties receive a full opportunity to present their claims and defenses. The lawyers representing the plaintiff and defendant will select a jury of nine or twelve persons. A jury is selected in a process called voir dire, which is French for “see and speak.” The proposed jurors are asked questions by the judge and by each of the lawyers, to determine if the jurors have any bias about the case, and the judge and lawyers get to hear the jurors “speak” and “see” how they respond to the questions. Once the lawyers and the judge are satisfied that the jurors are impartial, they are chosen for the jury. The jury will hear all of the evidence presented during the trial. After all evidence has been given, the jury will go into a closed room and discuss the evidence, in order to reach agreement on whether the plaintiff or the defendant should win the case. Once the jurors reach a decision, they report their decision to the judge and the lawyers. The jury’s decision is called the verdict. In a civil case, it is not required for all the jurors to agree to the verdict. Usually, in a panel of nine jurors in a civil case, six jurors must all agree in order to reach a verdict. In a panel of twelve jurors in a civil case, nine must agree. But in criminal cases, there are always twelve jurors, and the agreement of the jurors must be unanimous. All twelve jurors must agree that the defendant is either guilty or not guilty of the crime.
如果无法达成和解，纠纷就会上升到初审法庭。案件初审时，法官会监督双方，确保双方平等的申诉与辩护。原告与被告的诉讼律师挑选9-12人的陪审团，指从普通民众中随机挑选参加法庭审判并在听取质证后对案件作出裁决的公民团体。受到推荐的陪审团成员要回答法官以及每一名律师的问题。来判定陪审员们是否对案件有偏见，法官与律师想要获取陪审员们的说法以及他们回答问题的方式。一旦法官与律师认为陪审员是公正的，他们就会被选入陪审团。陪审团在初审过程中会听取所有法庭上呈现的相关证据。所有的证据提供完成后，为了就原告被告谁输谁赢达成一致意见，陪审团需要在一个密闭的房间讨论证据。一旦陪审员们做出决定，他们要立刻将决定上报给法官与律师。陪审团的决定就叫做裁决。民事案件中，所有的陪审员必须要认同裁决。民事案件中陪审团成员通常是9个人，6个陪审员都同意才能达成裁决。而在由12个人组成的陪审团中，需要9个陪审员同意才能达成裁决。但是，刑事案件中有12名陪审员，陪审员的意见必须是匿名的。12名陪审员必须一致同意，从而判定被告是有罪的或者是无罪的。
If the party who loses a case in the trial court wants a higher court to review the decision, the party will take an appeal. The person who initiates the appeal is called the appellant, and the person responding to the appeal is called the appellee. Notice that the parties’ positions may be the same, or may be reversed, from their roles as plaintiff and defendant in the trial court. If the plaintiff wins the case, and the defendant takes the appeal, then the defendant will be the appellant, and the plaintiff will be the appellee. But if the defendant wins the case, and the plaintiff takes the appeal, then the plaintiff will be the appellant, and the defendant will be the appellee. It is important to examine and understand the parties’ roles with respect to both the original lawsuit and the appeal.
如果在初审法庭输了官司的一方有意愿在上诉法庭要求重审，就会开始提起上诉。提起上诉的一方当事人称作上诉人，对上诉作出回应的一方当事人叫做被上诉人。初审法庭上，当事人的位置可能是保持不变，也可能由原告变成被告，或是被告变成原告。若原告赢了官司，被告提起上诉，那么被告就变成了原告，原告就变成了被告。但是如果在初审法庭中被告赢了官司，原告提起诉讼，那么原告依旧是原告，被告依然是被告。对于初始的起诉以及后期的上诉，对当事人角色转换的理解是相当重要的。
Jurisdiction of the Courts
With fifty state court systems and one federal court system in the U.S.A., how does a plaintiff decide where to go to start a lawsuit? That is a question of which court has the jurisdiction over the case and the parties. Jurisdiction can be thought of as the power of a court to hear a case, as well as the power of the court to enforce its orders against the parties involved. Not all courts have jurisdiction over all cases or over all parties. The plaintiff must choose a court which not only has jurisdiction over the case, but can also enforce its decision against the parties. A plaintiff would choose to file the lawsuit in a federal court if the plaintiff is seeking to enforce a federal law. A plaintiff would choose to file the lawsuit in a state court if the plaintiff is seeking to enforce a state law. Generally, federal laws (those made by Congress) are enforced in the federal courts. By contrast, laws made in a particular state (by that state’s Legislature) are enforced by the courts in that state.
美国的联邦法院以及50个州法院体系，当事人如何能知道选择哪个法院起诉呢？也就是说，哪一个法院拥有对案件以及当事人的管辖权呢。管辖权指的是法院审理案件或对当事人签发裁定、命令的权利。然而并不是所有的法院都拥有对案件以及当事人的管辖权。原告需要选择一个对案件拥有管辖权且能对当事人强制执行其决定的法院。若原告寻求执行联邦法律，那么原告就需要选择在联邦法院提起诉讼。若原告寻求执行州法律，那么原告就要在州法院提起诉讼。一般来说，联邦法律（由国会制定的法律）在联邦法院实施。与之相反，在特定州的法律主要在所在州的法院实施。
A plaintiff might also choose a federal court or a state court because of where the defendant lives. If the plaintiff is suing a defendant who lives in a different state than where the plaintiff lives, the plaintiff will probably file the lawsuit in a federal court. Federal courts have jurisdiction over parties living in different states, because no matter what state a person lives in, he or she is still a citizen of the United States. But if the defendant lives in the same state as the plaintiff, the plaintiff will probably file the lawsuit in a state court. A state court has jurisdiction over all persons within that state.
原告可能会选择联邦法庭或者被告生活的州法庭申诉案件。若原告起诉的被告与自身不在同一个州，那么原告很有可能选择联邦法院起诉案件。联邦法院对居住在不同州的当事人有管辖权。因为无论是哪一个州的州民，都属于美国公民。但是如果原告与被告属于同一个州的公民，原告就很有可能在州法院起诉案件。州法院对整个州区域范围拥有管辖权。
How a Common Law System Is Different From a Civil Law System
The United States is one of a group of countries which were once colonies of England, and as a result, derived their legal systems from England. All of those countries (the UK, USA, Canada, India, Australia, New Zealand, and Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China, among others) follow the common law system of laws and the enforcement and interpretation of those laws. Many other countries in the world follow the civil law system of laws. How are these legal systems different?
美国曾是英国的殖民地，因此沿袭了英国的司法体系。英国、美国、加拿大、印度、澳大利亚，新西兰以及中国香港都遵循普通法法律体系及它的实施与解释。世界上其他国家和地区采用大陆法系。那么大陆法系与普通法系有什么不同呢？
The common law is often called“judge made law”or“case law.”It comes from the tradition in England in which judges would make decisions in cases, and those decisions would then be followed by other judges who were deciding cases of similar facts or involving similar legal problems. These decisions would be followed again and again, and so became the “common law” for cases of that type. In the 18th Century, Sir William Blackstone compiled all of these case decisions in his book, Commentaries on the Law of England. This method of deciding cases based on earlier decisions is the standard practice for the interpretation and enforcement of laws in all common law countries. When a case has been decided, it becomes a precedent and other courts and judges will usually follow that decision. The word precedent comes from the same root word as precede, meaning “to come before.” In other words, a precedent is a case which comes before other similar cases, and the later cases will usually be decided in the same way as the precedent case. When a judge relies on an earlier decision, and decides the current case which is before him in the same way, he is applying the rule of stare decisis, a Latin phrase meaning, "to stand on the decision."
普通法又称为法官法或是判例法。它源于英国的法官对案件的裁决结果。法官会沿袭类似案件事实及其法律问题的裁定结果。这样的裁定结果被反复采用就形成了同类型案件的通法。18世纪，威廉布莱克斯通将这些案件的裁定结果记录在自己创作的《英国法释义》里。在所有普通法的国家中，案件裁定的方法都基于早期的解释和执行法律的标准案例。当案件裁定后，它就成为了先例，其他法院及法官通常会采用相同的决定。“precedent”一词源于同根词“precede”，意为“在……之前来”。换句话说，先例是指在同类型案件之前的裁决结果，之后的案件会与先例裁定结果一致。当法官依赖于之前的裁定结果，或者，他就会根据过去的判例实行。
By contrast, a civil law system relies on codes or statutes, which are written laws. In Europe, civil law systems were derived from the ancient Roman legal codes and written laws. Actually, even in common law countries today, there are many written laws (such as the laws passed by Congress or the state Legislatures), and those written laws form the primary authority for the law. The major difference in common law systems and civil law systems comes from the power of judges as they enforce those laws. In civil law systems, judges generally have no power to change the written laws, but instead are limited to application and enforcement of those written laws of their country. Any decision made by a judge in a particular case does not serve as precedent for any later case. But in common law countries, judges do have the power to actually change the written laws by the way they interpret those laws as they make decisions on a case by case basis. And because of the rule of precedent in common law countries, a judge’s interpretation of a written law will generally control how that law will be interpreted, applied, and enforced in future cases and future situations. For this reason, it is said that in common law countries, many laws are“judge made”or that the law is“case law.”
与之相反，大陆法系要根据议会立法，即成文法。大陆法系源于古罗马法律准则及成文法。事实上，即使是当今实施普通法系的国家，仍旧有很多成文法（例如，由议会或者州立法机构通过的法律），成文法形成法律的初级权威。普通法系与大陆法系最大的不同在于实施这些法律的时候法官的权利大小。大陆法系中，法官一般无权改变成文法，但受限于本国成文法的应用与实施。任何由法官裁定的特殊案件都不能成为之后案件的先例。但在普通法系的国家中，法官有权改变成文法，同时他们还可以根据案件基础做决定解释法律。并且因为普通法系国家先例的准则，法官对成文法的阐释一般可以操控法律如何在未来的案例与情况中被阐释，应用和实施。因此，普通法系国家，颁布的很多法律是由法官制定的，法律是案例法。
It is important not to confuse the meaning of civil when it is used to mean lawsuits brought to protect or enforce individual rights or obligations, and the meaning of civil law system, as explained above.
当诉讼是为了保护个人的权利与义务，搞清楚“civil”一词的含义是非常重要的。大陆法系的含义正如上述所解释的。
The Congress and state legislatures in the U.S.A., or the Parliament in the UK and other common law countries, do not write statutes about everything. While these legislative bodies do make many laws, they do not attempt to write a law for every single situation that might come up. In cases where no particular law applies, it is up to the judge in common law countries to interpret the laws which are similar to the particular situation. If there is no law that seems to apply at all, the judge will make a ruling that is specific to that particular case. That ruling will then be followed and used by other judges in similar cases. This is what is meant by “judge made law”or“case law.”By contrast, in civil law systems, the decision of a judge will only be binding on the parties involved in that particular case which the judge is deciding. The judge’s decision will not change the written law and will have no influence on similar cases which are decided later by other judges.
美国国会以及州立法机构，英国议会以及其他普通法系国家，不会形成所有问题的成文法。当立法主体的确需要立法的时候，它们也不会为出现每一种新情况颁布成文法。若案例没有适用的法律的时候，普通法系国家就由法官解释类似特殊情况下的法律。如果存在的没有任何适用的法律的情况，法官就可以对特殊的案例进行此详细裁决。这样的裁决就会为其他法官审理类似案件所采用。这就叫做“法官制订法律”或者“案例法”。与之相反，大陆法系，法官的决定不会改变成文法，对于审理类似案件的其他法官也不会产生任何影响。
plaintiff (n) 原告。指提起诉讼的一方当事人。
prosecutor (n) 检察官。指提出刑事诉讼的主体。
defendant (n) 被告或被告人。指民事诉讼的被告或被刑事指控的被告人。
party (n) 当事人。指涉案人，包括原告和被告。
trial (n) 审判，审理。指对案件事实、法律进行审查并作出裁定的法律过程。
case (n) 案件。指提出相应要求的诉讼案件。
cause of action (n)诉讼理由。即原告所提出诉讼的法律理由。
defense (n) 辩护。被告人就其被指控的行为提出免除或合法的法律理由， 答辩、防护，被告针对其被诉作出的抗辩；对其攻击作出的防护。
trial court (n) 初审法院，一审法院。指对案件具有最初审判权的法院。
jurisdiction (n) 管辖权。指法院审理案件或对当事人签发裁定、命令的权力。
jury (n) 陪审团。指从普通民众中随机挑选参加法庭审判并在听取质证后对案件做出裁决的公民团体（通常由12人组成，但有时由9人组成）。
evidence (n) 证据。即在审理中用于证明案件事实的材料。
witness (n) 证人。指感知（目睹、听说、闻到，或其他知觉）某一事件或对某一事件能够提供相关信息的人。
testimony (n) 证人证言。指证人在庭审中所作的口头陈述。
appeal (n) 上诉，上诉审。即上级法院对下级法院的裁决所进行的审理活动。
affirm (v) 肯定，确认；维持原判。即上诉法院认可下级法院的裁决并予以维持。
remand (v) 发回重审。指由上诉法院命令下级法院对案件重新审理或审查。
reverse (v) 反转，推翻；撤销原判。即上诉法院发现下级法院判决错误并予以撤销。
writ (n) 令状，法院命令。
certiorari (v) (拉丁词)，意为通告，告知，移送诉讼文件、调卷。
writ of certiorari (n) 复审令。指要求上级法院审查或复审下级法院裁定的法律文件。
appellant (n) 上诉人。即提起上诉的一方当事人。
appellee (n) 被上诉人。即对上诉作出回应的一方当事人。
crime (n) 犯罪。指违反刑法并且应该受到刑事罚款或监禁的行为。
criminal (adj) 刑事的。与犯罪相关并对个人或公司予以刑事指控的法律程序。
civil (adj) 民事的。即与私有权利和义务相关的，用于保护和执行个人或公司之私有权利的法律程序。
complaint (n) 起诉书，起诉状。即原告提出诉求或表明诉讼理由的法律文书。
answer (n) 答辩。即被告对原告的回应。
pleadings (n) 诉请及答辩。
motions (n) 动议，请求。指向法官提出的作出特定决定的要求或请求。
order (n)（法官）决定或裁定。
injunction (n) 禁令，命令，强制令。指法院对一方当事人发出的禁止或强制其做出某事的命令。
brief (n) 案件摘要。通常由律师为提出某一动议而就案件事实和法律所作的法律文件。
affidavits (n) 宣誓书，书面陈诉。指当事人或证人宣誓为真的书面陈述。
discovery (n) 发现、显示；对案件事实或信息的发现或披露。
deposition (n) 证人证言。证人在法庭外就律师询问所作出的正式证言。
interrogatories (n) 问题。指由一方当事人向另一方当事人提出的书面问题。
request for documents (n) 向当事人发出的提供相应文件副本的书面要求。
settlement (n) 和解。指由当事人自己通过协议解决纠纷的形式。
voir dire (n) 陪审团挑选过程， 陪审员资格审查。
verdict (n) 裁决。指由陪审团作出的裁决。
stare decisis (v) 遵循先例。为拉丁术语，指依据先前的判例。
1. What type of discovery proceeding is taking place in this video?
2.When was the meeting between Troy Brown and Gabriella Jones?
3.Who is Mr. Dewey, and what is his job?
4.Does Troy admit that he breached the contract? If not, why not?
5. What does Troy say that Gabriella asked him to do?
6. Why does Troy show Mr. Cheatum his phone at the end?
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